Sioux Indian The Warrior, 1898

   But US policy throughout the West was to move the Indians onto limited reservations, by whatever means necessary. General Sheridan had taken command of U.S. forces in the West in 1866, stating the policy of exterminating the buffalo herds that the Indians depended upon: "Kill the buffalo and you kill the Indians."

   On December, 6, 1875, the US Commissioner on Indian Affairs ordered the Lakota onto the reservation by a Jan. 31, 1876, deadline, threatening to treat them as "hostiles" and have them arrested. The Sioux bands were scattered during this harsh winter; some didn't get the order; others were hunting or camped in the Unceded Indian Territory (which was their right). It would also have been impossible to move thousands of women and children through the snows to the reservation in this short time, and no food for them if they got there. On February 1, 1876, the Secretary of the Interior relinquished jurisdiction over all so-called "hostile" (non-agency) Sioux - those Indians lawfully hunting in the non-reservation territory - to the War Department. The Army was ordered in. The 1868 Treaty had been demolished.

Chief Red Cloud, 1868

   Chief Red Cloud (1822-1909) was a leading warrior from about 1854, and a prominent "shirt-wearer" in 1866-71. Red Cloud emerged as the prominent leader of the Oglala Lakota. Because of his prominence, the US treated him as the overall chief over the Oglalas, although this was not the original social organization of the Lakota. But he acted in this capacity, along with Spotted Tail (of the Brules) and others, as the only way to deal with the US government. He was a respected, traditional leader and chief until well into his older years, through the most difficult period in his tribe's history.

   Red Cloud had defiant battles with the government agent in the early 1880s, to preserve the traditional authority of the chiefs. He traveled to Washington again in 1880 during these disputes. He fought against the Dawes Act of 1887-89, which divided tribal land into individual allotted tracts, and took away half the Sioux land (of 1868) for use by whites. During this confrontation, he faced down General Crook, the government's chief negotiator, at Pine Ridge in 1889. Behind his leadership, the majority of the Oglala stood firm against the agreement. But enough defections took place on the other reservations, and the required 75% approval was obtained for the agreement.

   In 1888, Red Cloud invited the Jesuits in and helped establish a school for Lakota children. This a wise decision, because it kept Indian children on the tribal land, able to associate with their families and tribal friends. This was much better than having them taken far away to be indoctrinated into the white culture. In 1879, the Carlise Indian School in Pennsylvania had tried unsuccessfully to persuade Red Cloud, Spotted Tail, and other chiefs, to give their children to the school for "education" (indoctrination). Spotted Tail had initially agreed to send his sons, but after he and other chiefs had visited Carlisle, he objected to the military-style training, and lower-level education versus what he had been told. The Indian agents, after much argument, finally resorted to outright kidnapping and force to steal Indian children off the reservations and take them to Carlisle. This is one of the reasons Red Cloud opted for a school on his reservation.

   Red Cloud led his people for about 40 years, as a warrior, shirt-wearer, and chief. He went to Washington more times than any other Indian chief in history. There were victories and defeats. But this Chief of chiefs was never bowed in his spirit, and his people were much better off for his leadership.

Black Elk, 1939

   Black Elk was a holy man of the Oglala Lakota Sioux. He was a visionary who believed that dreams were wiser than waking thoughts. In "Black Elk Speaks", he recounts his visions, and also his experiences: "Then I was standing on the highest mountain of them all, and round about beneath me was the whole hoop of the world. And while I stood there I saw more than I can tell and I understood more than I saw; for I was seeing in a sacred manner the shapes of all things in the spirit, and the shape of all shapes as they must live together like one being."

   He was 13 years old in 1876, and fought in the Battle of the Rosebud and in the Battle of Little Big Horn. He traveled to London and met Queen Victoria in 1887. He also tells of his coming upon the aftermath of the massacre at Wounded Knee of 200-300 Miniconjous Sioux on Dec. 29, 1890 by the US military, after they had sought refuge with the Oglala on the Pine Ridge Reservation: "The sun was shining. But after the soldiers marched away from their dirty work, a heavy snow began to fall. The wind came up in the night. There was a big blizzard, and it grew very cold. The snow drifted deep in the crooked gulch, and it was one long grave of butchered women and children and babies, who had never done any harm and were only trying to run away."

Buffalo

   The Sioux, who call themselves Dakota or Lakota, are the largest tribe in the United States with 25,000 members. At one time, the Sioux owned nearly all of both Dakotas and about one-half of Minnesota. They now live on reservations within their ancient territory.

   Their language was reduced to writing in the 1840's and has now a considerable literature. Nearly all the men of the tribe are able to conduct personal correspondence in their own language. They have a special fondness for parade, and eagle-feather war-bonnets are numerous in this delegation.

   The habits of buffalo were especially important to the Lakota's lifeway. The migratory movement of the buffalo from spring to winter was mirrored by the Lakota on earth, and by spirit beings in the heavens. This reciprocal connection greatly influenced their seasonal camp life. The knowledge and awareness of the movements of the sun and stars, the passing of new moons or months, led the Lakota through their cycles, culminating with their primary annual event, the Sun Dance, when the populations of the buffalo herds had reached their peak.